Definition And Types Of Social Capital

Definition And Types Of Social Capital Social capital is the the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition (Bourdieu 1983: 249). Social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity, but a variety of different entities, having two characteristics in common: they all consist of some aspect of a social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of individuals who are within the structure (Coleman 1994: 302). Whereas physical capital refers to physical objects and human capital refers to the properties of individuals, social capital refers to connections among individuals social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. In that sense social capital is closely related to what some have called civic virtue. The difference is that social capital calls attention to the fact that civic virtue is most powerful when embedded in a sense network of reciprocal social relations. A society of many virtuous but isolated individuals is not necessarily rich in social capital (Putnam 2000: 19). Social capital refers to the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a societys social interactions Social capital is not just the sum of the institutions which underpin a society it is the glue that holds them together (The World Bank 1999). According to John Field, the fundamental of social capital is that relationship matters. It helps people to commit themselves to people in the community. It eventually becomes a shared set of values, virtues and expectation within society as a whole. However, Robert Putman (1993; 2000) is the person who launched social capital which focused on research and policy discussions. The World Bank also chose social capital as a useful organising idea. They argue that increasing evidence shows that social cohesion is critical for societies to prosper economically and for development to be sustainable (The World Bank 1999). In this piece we explore the idea of social capital and the contribution by voluntary clubs to social capital. Types of Social Capital There are three types of social capital: bonding social capital, bridging social capital and linking social capital. Bonding social capital refers to the links between like-minded people, or the reinforcement of homogeneity. (Schuller, Baron, Field, 2000) Bonding Social Capital indicates ties between people in similar situation. It can be your neighbours, friends or even family. (Woolcock 2001: 13-4). Bridging social capital can be referred as building of connections between heterogeneous groups, which are likely to be more fragile, but more likely also to foster social inclusion. (Schuller, Baron, Field, 2000) Bridging social capital covers distant ties of like persons, such as workmates and fast friends. (Woolcock 2001: 13-4) Linking social capital, which reaches out to unlike people in dissimilar situations, such as those who are entirely outside of the community, thus enabling members to leverage a far wider range of resources than are available in the community. (Woolcock 2001: 13-4) The discussion of social capital is credited to three main theorists namely Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman and Robert Putnam. Bourdieu stated that there are three kind of capitals, but for this paper we only look at Social Capital. Bourdieu provides a concise definition of social capital by stating: social capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential resource which is linked to the possession of a durable network of more of less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition (p. 249). Field and Wynne said that people access other forms of capital through social capital. In sporting circumstances, Bourdieu gives an example of golf clubs where individuals network to facilitate business, a social practice that is not available to all members of a community given the exclusive nature of many golf clubs (Field, 2003; Wynne, 1999). According to Coleman, social capital is not a single body. It is a structure which facilitates certain action, which has positive outcome; otherwise it would not have been possible. Coleman, through his research, found out that the level of school drop-out rate had reduced due to parental investment and family social capital. Coleman, in this context defines social capital as a set of resources that are available in family relation which is important for social development of the child. These resources differ from person to person and an advantage to children to develop their human capital. (Coleman, 1994, cited in Coalter, 2007, p. 541) According to Putman, social capital is not just a public good but is for the public good. Putnam states that, bonding social capital are when people of the same community, with similar values associate together to achieve shared goals. They tend to reinforce restricted identities and are homogenous group. Putman also says that this kind of association have some negative points as they tend to exclude outsiders. Exclusion of outsiders here means that a football club will have a tendency to include supporters and players from a same background. They would try to exclude those who are not from the same background. On the other hand bridging social capital is heterogeneous in nature. Heterogeneity of social connections promotes linkage with different type of people. Bridging social capital however, has the potential to forge connections. People with same as well as from different background can connect within the community or outside the community (Narayan Cassidy, 2001). We can thus see that people who are connected through bridging social capital have a wider range of associates. They also got more opportunities. Therefore Bridging social capital is very important to enhance social inclusion and to develop communitys ability. Sports Volunteers: The Real Active Citizens? Sports Clubs are career for the expression of active citizenship through volunteering. Volunteers are more important than any other thing in a club or a sporting organization (Nichols, et al., 2004). Clubs provide an opportunity which helps the community by contributing to social capital through social interaction (Coalter, 2007; Long, 2008; Weed et al., 2005). The volunteers share their values, a reflection of the society where their expressions of collective values are encouraged, which is a positive contribution towards society. As Coalter (2007) points out the diffuse and contested nature of social capital is central to the social regeneration/social inclusion agenda (p. 159). The volunteers have a potential contribution to rebuild the social capital. Sport England (1999, p8) stresses volunteering as activity which is fundamental to the development of democratic society. It helps in contributing towards their public life and develops their communities. Consequently such policies are as much concerned with the instrumental use of sport for purposes of community development as they are in simply developing sport in the community (Coalter and Allison, 1996). The key policy message here is that the potentially positive benefits of sport are not only to be obtained via participation involvement in the organisation and provision of opportunities for sport and physical recreation can assist in the development of self-esteem and a series of transferable skills a view of volunteering as active citizenship.

1720s and 1820a :: American History

In the 1720’s to the 1820’s there were several events, changes, and processes that occurred in America. The three events I am choosing to analyze are: The Great Awakening, The Revolution, and The Market Economy. Each one of these events had a cultural, social and economic aspect. Each one of these events had different impacts and was manifested in several different ways. The first event I will be analyzing is The Great Awakening. â€Å"The Great Awakening cut across lines of class, status, and education† (Boyer â€Å"Bonds of Empire†, P. 86). â€Å"The American Protestantism was split† (Boy â€Å"Bonds of Empire†, P. 87). â€Å"In 1741 Old and New Light Presbyterians formed rival branches that reunited in 1758 when the revivalists emerged victorious† (Boyer â€Å"Bonds of Empire†, P. 87). â€Å"Members of Anglican churches started leaving and going to New Light Presbyterians and Baptists† (Boyer â€Å"Bonds of Empire†, P. 87). â€Å"The Great Awakening stimulated the founding of new colleges unscarred by religious wars† (Boyer â€Å"Bonds of Empire†, P. 87). With the Great awakening for the cultural effect was that they found different churches for others to go to and enjoyed more. They also found colleges that are really well-known colleges today. The next event I chose to ana lyze is The Revolution. During the Revolution, there were social changes that affected several different races, classes and genders. The four groups that the Revolution had an effect on the social changes were: white men, White women, Black Americans, and Native Americas. With the Revolution effecting the white men by â€Å"wearing homespun clothing in support of boycotts of British goods (Boyer, â€Å"Defining Nationhood†, p. 128). When the Virginia planters organized militia companies in 1775, they wore plain hunting shirts so that they didn’t embarrass the poorest farmer for his clothes so that they could enlist† (Boyer, â€Å"Defining Nationhood†, p. 128). While men were out in the war the â€Å"women stayed home and managed families, households, farms and businesses on their own† (Boyer, â€Å"Defining Nationhood†, P. 129). For the Black Americans, it started to show others that slavery was not a good thing. â€Å"The war, nevertheless, presented new opportuni ties to African-Americans† (Boyer, â€Å"Defining Nationhood†, P. 130). â€Å"The slaves were even trying to escape as all the confusion that was going on and pose as a freeman† (Boyer, â€Å"Defining Nationhood†, p. 130). Even though the Revolution showed new opportunities to the African-Americans it â€Å"didn’t end slavery nor brought equality to free blacks, but it did begin a process by which slavery could be extinguished† (Boyer â€Å"Defining Nationhood†, p.

Outsourcing: Is It Ethical Essay

Outsourcing has become a very hot topic in our country over the last few years. Many Americans view this topic as very controversial and unethical. Outsourcing is also known as the offshoring of American jobs. These jobs are being sent to foreign countries all over the world. Under George Bush’s administration the American economy lost 1.6 million jobs. Outsourcing to other countries is not limited to one business sector or profession; almost all professions are beginning to feel the effects of outsourcing. Many politicians, economists and business people are having very heated debates in regards to outsourcing. There are some who feel that outsourcing is good for the American economy. There are others who strongly disagree and argue that outsourcing is an action taken by greedy companies that disrupt the economic futures of many people and these actions are purely unethical. Outsourcing experienced in America is highly debatable because we have a moral responsibility to adhere to values in society, and to promote human development. Advancing capitalism, by cutting costs and increasing profits, comes at a cost to society when values and moral standards are neglected. Outsourcing in itself is not illegal or unethical, but the repercussions of outsourcing experienced in America are considered to be unethical for the following reasons: American citizens, educated in America for the purpose of employment in America, are displaced from jobs by foreign workers; outsourcing lacks regulation to protect personal and sensitive information; and the American government offers no effective solutions to address these repercussions by re-training and re-employing displaced workers, and by offering incentives for businesses not to outsource. Not only are Americans affected by outsourcing in career and future earnings, but their sense of security is affected too. Businesses that outsource American client information, to be stored and processed in a foreign country, often do so without disclosure to their clients. The foreign country adheres to a different set of regulations concerning data or information protection, and this puts American citizens at risk to identity theft or fraud. The actual long-term damage of job outsourcing on future innovation and individual earning power remains to be determined. Income levels are frozen and cannot compete with inflation. Workers lose leverage to negotiate fair wage  increases or promotion. Foreign employment policies, such as minimum wage, and working conditions differ. Businesses that are outsourcing can set a minimum wage in developing countries that would never be accepted as a minimum wage in America. When most of us think of outsourcing we immediately think of manufacturing jobs. The loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector has been publicized through the media, which has called upon the ethical issues involved. Ethical concerns for outsourcing manufacturing jobs range from human rights violations to standard of living issues. Even though manufacturing may be the highest sector affected by outsourcing, there are many more professions beginning to feel the effects such as engineering and design, High Tech Jobs and the Accounting Industry. Engineering and Design Some may believe that the jobs lost to foreign countries are those that are low paying and those that many would not want anyway. However, this is far from the truth. Highly skilled workers in the engineering and design fields are starting to feel the effects of outsourcing. The decision to outsource engineering services is driven by money and the need to cut costs. For example, â€Å"an office in India provides design and engineering capabilities such as finite element analysis, 2D drafting and 3D modeling, design sheet metal parts and complex molds, kinematics simulation along with other skills.† Engineering firms are beginning to see the benefits to outsourcing to foreign companies to do design work. Tom Epply, president of Continental Design and Engineering stated, â€Å"my view is that I’m trying to save a business for my customer. It’s either this or he can have his head stuck in the sand and possibly lose the business. I’m trying to look at the bigger picture. The engineers in India can do the routine work, while the engineers her can do the research.† Many engineering consultants feel the same way as Tom Epply, outsourcing is inevitable and we need it to survive. But does this make it ethical? Outsourcing engineering services can save companies money, however, there are many that disagree. The NSPE (National Society for Professional Engineers) has issued the following statement: â€Å"the outsourcing of engineering should be done only when the talent cannot be found in the US.  If outsourcing of engineering work is done, it should be done using the same rules, regulations, and laws that employers and employees are subject to in the US.† If a company outsources because of corporate greed and selfishness of top executives then this is very unethical but if outsourcing is done out of competitive necessity and the needs of the employees, it should be considered and viewed as ethical. There are some who believe that there is a shortage of American engineers and this might contribute to the haste in outsourcing engineering work. However, there are plenty of people here in the US who can do the work. There are few engineering firms around the country that are struggling with the issues of outsourcing work or keeping their work inside the US. These companies will be forced to weigh the pros and cons and decide what is ethical for their firm. High Tech Jobs The need for technology and IT (information technology) firms has grown rapidly and will continue to grow in the future. These firms have been hit hard with outsourcing to foreign countries. There was a time when someone with a degree in computer programming did not have to worry about having a job. Most everyone thought that computer programmers were in demand and would always have a job. In 2000, the unemployment rate for computer programmers was 2.0%. By 2004, this number rose to 9.5%. One company that US jobs are being sent to is India Web Developers. This company’s website has an entire section devoted to convincing companies of why they should outsource their web development needs to India. In the past America was seen as a global leader in regards to technology. Now the question is: Is the US losing their position as the technology leader by outsourcing these jobs? In order for the US to keep their high status, there will need to be more investment in education and teaching of math and science. Without education and a capable workforce, we will lose high-tech jobs and our place as innovators globally. The Accounting Industry The outsourcing of accounting functions, such as tax returns, book keeping and auditing, have become a multi-million dollar industry around the world.  Reports of the scope and size of the outsourcing market vary greatly, but the largest outsourcing companies claim that thousands of returns were processed during the 2003 tax season. Estimates indicate that totals now may be well into the hundreds of thousands. Accounting firms are feeling more and more pressure to outsource some of their work and lower their costs. On the website for SurePrep, which is an offshore provider for tax return services, they provide the following pitch to CPA’s and accounting firms: What if you could prepare a thousand more tax returns without adding even one more staff member? And what if you could prepare those returns for up to 50 percent less than what it costs you right now? You can with SurePrep. And with virtually unlimited ability to prepare and process returns, you can increase volume, multiply profits, and grow your practice. This proposal is definitely hard for any firm to pass on. What company would pass up increasing their volume and profits without adding staff? There are many additional benefits that an outsourcing firm may provide for accounting firms including : 1. Qualified part time help 2. Huge cost advantage to outsourcing 3. Faster turn- around time and increased productivity with returns coming back in less than 48 hours. 4. CPA firm freed up due to reduced tax preparation workloads. Leaving time for staff to find ways to offer clients new services. 5. Tax outsourcing can serve as a catalyst for business transformation, enabling a firm to outsource other accounting functions such as bookkeeping. Due to these benefits, many firms are beginning to outsource overseas. Although these benefits may seem great, there are still some risks and ethical concerns related to outsourcing. According to the AICPA (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants), the chief concern is the Code of Professional Conduct that CPA’s are required to follow. According to Richard Miller and Alan Anderson, â€Å"AICPA members have responsibilities related to the practice of using third parties to provide services in engagements for clients. Primary among them are security and confidentiality of information, due professional care and compliance with provisions of the Code of Professional Conduct. In addition, members must monitor security procedures that third-party providers have put into place to ensure they remain effective.† It will be difficult for accountants to  ensure that financial information of their clients remain confidential and secure. Also, firms will find it hard to ensure that the outsourcing companies are qualified to complete the job. According to the AICPA, firms need to â€Å"exercise due care† to make sure their clients information are handled correctly and securely. They also state that â€Å"there is no specific ethical requirement that the member disclose to the client that they are using the services of an outside provider.† Conclusion Outsourcing is a legal business activity affecting America. And it is an inevitable response to globalization and international trade. The outsourcing of American jobs will continue to be a great subject to debate here in the United States. Our politicians will continue to debate the topic and decide if there should be laws set to help or hinder companies from outsourcing jobs. There are many officials that believe that outsourcing will help our country and economy and that nothing bad could come from outsourcing. â€Å"It is a general rule in economics that in order for an economy to grow, old jobs must be destroyed so that new jobs can be created.† There are also those who believe we should at all cost protect our current jobs. High unemployment in America has renewed complaints that outsourcing to countries such as India hurts American workers. It seems that outsourcing American jobs is not going away and will only increase. Knowing this there are a few questions we should all ask ourselves, Is outsourcing an ethical practice, Is outsourcing for the sole purpose of reducing cost ethical and What responsibilities do US companies have to the employees they have laid off due to outsourcing? George Bush once said, â€Å"What do you say to someone in this country who has lost his job to someone overseas who’s being paid a fraction of what that job paid here in the United States?† Good question! Works Cited (n.d.). Retrieved from SurePrep: Http://sureprep.com Anderson, A. W. (n.d.). Legal and Ethical Considerations. Retrieved 8 2011, August , from American Institute of Certified Public Accoutants: ttp://www.aicpa.org/download/ethics/outsourcing.pdf Boykin, D. (November, 12 2006). Offshore Outsourcing Stirs National Debate. Retrieved 5 2011, August , from http://www.nspe.org/etweb/10304feature.asp Bringham, N. (November, 12  2006). Outsourcing High-Tech Jobs:Why benign neglect isn’t working. Retrieved August 5, 2011, from Computer professional for Social Responsibility: http://www.cpsr.org/pubs/workingpapers/1/IToutsourcing Harrison, K. (n.d.). Machine Design. Retrieved 5 2011, August, from Machine Design: http://forums.machinedesign.com/eve/forums/a/tpc/f/7000036462/m/6290025372 McGhee, B. W. (n.d.). Ethical Issues in Outsourcing Accounting and Tax Services. Retrieved August 8, 2011, from Social Science Research Network: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=648766 Mintz, S. (n.d.). The Ethical Dilemmas of Outsourcing. Retrieved 8 2011, August, from New York State Society of CPA’s: http://www.nyssacpa.org/cpajournal Torrance, F. (n.d.). Center for Management Communication. Retrieved 8 2011, August , from The Ethics of In-house vs. Outsourcing: http://www.usc.edu/org/InsightBusiness/archives/fall2005/TheEthicsofInhouse.htm

Womens Rights Of Women - 1434 Words

Makenzie Holman Research Brief In the early 1900s, it was very uncommon for women to have access to contraceptives or health education. Then one day, a doctor and a nurse tended to a women at home who was suffering from having an abortion. Just like many women in the U.S. at this time, she was wanting to learn how to prevent pregnancies so she did not have to have any more abortions. As the doctor and nurse left this woman s house, the women begged the doctor to teach her how she could prevent her own pregnancies. To the nurses disbelief the doctor would not give the woman one once of information. This is the moment where health education would change forever. This moment released the beginning of the fight to make contraceptives†¦show more content†¦Since violating the law was a crime that would lead to jail, Sanger fled to Europe to learn how other countries dealt with pregnancy and contraceptives. Sanger noticed that it was unfair to lower-income families that they were uneducated about health educ ation and always had to have abortions, where a lot of the time women would die, compared to higher-income families that had more access to this education and they could prevent pregnancies. After many attempts of providing information to the public and getting in trouble with the law, Sanger decided to have a new conservative approach to the public. She was getting aggravated that laws were not being passed, so she created the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control (NCFL). Birth control could be prescribed by doctors at this time, but because of the Comstock laws many doctors did not like sharing this information. This is why Sanger created the NCFL, so she could get more attention to legislators that would then create an amendment that would allow doctors to share this crucial health information with the public. After years and years of birth control propaganda and social reform, Sanger finally saw the day where the Comstock law was dropped in the 1965 Supreme Court Case in Griswold v. Connecticut. The court finally ruled that it was a constitutional right have a private use of contraceptives. Sanger also provided the start of researching the